Travels Sundarbans in Bangladesh

Sundarbans, The  largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, located in the southern part of Bangladesh. It lies on the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta at the point where it merges with the bay of bengal. The forest lies a little south to the Tropic of Cancer between the latitudes 21º30´N and 22º30´N, and longitudes 89º00´E and 89º55´E. With its array of trees and wildlife the forest is a showpiece of natural history. It is also a centre of economic activities, such as extraction of timber, fishing and collection of honey. The forest consists of about 200 islands, separated by about 400 interconnected tidal rivers, creeks and canals.

The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 sq km. Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size. Because of the partition of India, Bangladesh received about 2/3 of the forest; the rest is on the Indian side. It is now estimated to be about 4,110 sq km, of which about 1,700 sq km is occupied by waterbodies. The forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai, Sarankhola, Khulna and Burigoalini and has 16 forest stations. It is further divided into 55 compartments and 9 blocks. The Sundarbans was declared as a Reserve Forest in 1875. About 32,400 hectares of the Sundarbans have been declared as three wildlife sanctuaries, and came under the UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. These wildlife sanctuaries were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. These are Sundarbans West (9,069 ha), Sundarbans South (17,878 ha), and Sundarbans East (5,439 ha).

The Bangla word ban means forest, and the name Sundarban was coined either from the forests of Sundari tree ie Sundari-ban, or from the forests of the samudra (sea) ie, Samudra-ban, or from its association with the primitive tribe Chandra-bandhe which was corrupted into Sundarban. The generally accepted explanation, however, is its derivation from the sundari tree, the most common tree in these forests.

Geology The tract of the Sundarbans is of recent origin, raised by the deposition of sediments formed due to soil erosion in the Himalayas. The process has been accelerated by tides from the sea face. The substratum consists mainly of Quaternary Era sediments, sand and silt mixed with marine salt deposits and clay. Geologists have detected a southeastern slope and tilting of the Bengal basin during the Tertiary. Because of neo-tectonic movements during the 10th-12th century AD, the Bengal Basin titled eastward. Evidence from borehole studies indicate that while the westernside of the Sundarbans is relatively stable, the southeastern corner is an active sedimentary area and is subsiding.

Soil Soils of the Sundarbans mangrove forest differ from other inland soils in that they are subjected to the effects of salinity and waterlogging, which naturally affect the vegetation. In places soils are semi-solid and poorly consolidated. The pH ranges widely from 5.3 to 8.0. Although the Sundarbans soil is in general medium textured, sandy loam, silt loam or clay loam, the grain size distribution is highly variable. Silt loam is dominant textural class. Sodium and calcium contents of the soil vary from 5.7 to 29.8 meq/100g dry soil and are generally low in the eastern region and higher towards the west. The available potassium content of the soil is low, 0.3-1.3 meq/100g dry soil. Organic matter content varies between 4% and 10% in dry soil. Soil salinity increases from east (slight to moderate) to west (highly saline), but the salinity is not uniform from north to south throughout the forest.

Climate Since the forest is located on the south of the Tropic of Cancer and bounded by the northern limits of the Bay of Bengal, it is classified as tropical moist forest. The temperatures in the Sundarbans are fairly equable than those of the adjacent land areas. The average annual maximum and minimum temperatures vary between 30º and 21ºC. High temperatures occur from mid-March to mid-June and low in December and January. The mean maximum temperature for the hottest months has been recorded as 32.4ºC at Patuakhali, in the east of the Sundarbans.

The mean annual relative humidity varies from 70% at Satkhira to 80% at Patuakhali. Humidity is highest in June-October and lowest in February. Annual rainfall in the Sundarbans is in the range of 1640-2000 mm, rainfall increases from west to the east. Most rainfall occurs during the monsoon from May to October. Frequent and heavy showers occur from mid-June to mid-September. Often storm accompanied by tidal waves result widespread inundation and cause damage to vegetation and animal life.

Vegetation The vegetation is largely of mangrove type and encompasses a variety of plants including trees, shrubs, grasses, epiphytes, and lianas. Being mostly evergreen, they possess more or less similar physiological and structural adaptations. Most trees have pneumatophores for aerial respiration. The prominent species is Sundari (Heritiera fomes) and Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha). Prain (1903) recorded 334 species under 245 genera. Of these 17 are pteridophytes, 87 monocotyledons and the rest are dicotyledons. The plant species include 35 legumes, 29 grasses, 19 sedges, and 18 euphorbias. Of the 50 true mangrove plant species recorded, the Sundarbans alone contain 35. Almost all mangrove plant species are evergreen, dwarf, shrubby or tall trees, and grow gregariously without leaving any space on the floor.

In the Sundarbans the saltwater forest is situated in the south-western part where Gewa (E. agallocha), Goran (Ceriops decandra), Keora (Sonneratia apetala), Ora (S. caseolaris), Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis), Dhundul (X. granatum), Bain (Avicennia alba, A. marina, A. officinales), and other rhizophores, and Hantal (Phoenix pelludosa) dominate. The typical mangrove species dominate the central part of the forest. The moderate saltwater forest covers most of the southern parts of Khulna and Bagerhat districts where Sundari is the dominant species.

There is a thick mat of the nipa palm or 'Golpata' (Nipa fruticans) by the side of almost all the canals. The moderately freshwater zone results from the large amount of water, which flows down the Passur, Haringhata and Burisher, maintaining the surface water at a lower level of salinity.

A Sundarbans stream

The Sundarbans shows some distinct phyto-succession, where the newly formed lands are occupied by some pioneer species viz Leersia hexandra, wild rice (Potresia species), followed by Avicennia, Sonneratia and Aegiceras. The secondary succession occurs due to Ceriops, Excoecaria, Bruguiera, Heritiera, Xylocarpus and Rhizophora. Tiger fern (Achrostichum aureum) mostly covers the ground floor, which is common in saltwater and moderately saltwater zones. Tigers use these bushes to camouflage themselves.

Fauna The Sundarbans hosts a large variety of animals. It is the last stronghold of the bengal tiger (Panthera tigris). Within the forest habitats there are about 50 species of mammals, about 320 species of inland and migratory birds, about 50 species of reptiles, 8 species of amphibians, and about 400 species of fish.

Besides the spectacular Royal Bengal Tiger, the other notable mammalian fauna are Spotted deer (Cervus axis), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), the Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica), Otter (Lutra perspicillata), and wild boar (Sus scrofa). deer and wild boar constitute the main prey for the tiger. Some species including the Bengal tiger are endangered.

The ecological diversity of the Sundarbans supports a large variety of birds. Among the total number of species recorded, most are resident. Over 50 species are known to be migratory and are mostly represented by the waterfowls. The egrets, storks, herons, bitterns, sandpipers, curlew, and numerous other waders are seen along the muddy banks. There are many species of gulls and terns, especially along the seacoast and the larger waterways. Accipitridae (kites, eagles, vulture, harrier etc) is represented by about 22 species. Nine species of kingfishers are available in the forest. The rich avifaunas of the forest include species of woodpeckers, barbets, owls, bee-eaters, bulbul, shrikes, drongos, starlings, mynas, babblers, thrush, oriole, flycatchers, and many others.

Of about 50 species of reptiles the largest member in the Sundarbans is the Estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), some of which may attain a length of about seven metres. Although once they were abundant in this mangrove habitat, their total number is now estimated to be around 250. Species of lizards, including the Monitor Lizards Varanus, turtles, and snakes are well-represented. Among the snakes, the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Russell's Viper (Vipera russellii), Rock python (Python molurus), Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus) and several species of sea snakes are notable.

Nipa Palm, Sundarbans

Only eight species of amphibians have been reported from the SuThe green frog (Euphlyctindarbans. s hexadactylus) is mostly observed in Chandpai area of the mangrove forest. The other forest amphibians include the Skipper frog (E. cyanophlyctis), Cricket frog (Limnonectes limnocharis), Tree frog (Polypedates maculatus), and the common toad.

The Sundarbans suports nearly 400 species of fishes in its varied aquatic habitats; these include both the pelagic and demersal fishes. Many species use these habitats as nursery grounds. No aquaculture or fish farming is allowed in the Sundarbans. The Forest Department controls the fish catch from the area.

Sundarbans deer	Courtesy: Saniar Rahman Rahul

Among the invertebrates some molluscs and crustaceans constitute important fisheries resources. About 20 species of shrimps, 8 species of lobsters, 7 species of crabs, several species of gastropods, and 6 species of pelecypods have been reported from the Sundarbans. Among the shrimps Penaeus monodon and Metapenaeus monoceros and the mud crab Scylla serrata are commercially important. Insects are varied, the most important being the honeybee Apis dorsata. Locally known as 'Mouals', the professional bee collectors gather honey for three to four months during the flowering season taking permission from the Forest Department. The forest is very rich in its spider fauna (Araneae). Nearly 300 species under 22 families have been recorded from the mangrove forest habitats.

Economic value, tourism and forest dwellers The most important value of the Sundarbans lies in its protective role. It helps hold coastlines, reclaim coastal lands, and settle the silt carried by the rivers. The estuary is a good breeding centre for many fishes. Several plant-based industries have been developed here. The most important ones are the newsprint and hardboard mills in Khulna. The raw material for the former is gewa and for the latter sundari. Other important plant-based industries are match factories and boat building. The forest is a good source of fuel, tannins, thatching, wooden articles, medicinal plants, and fodder. The forest is also a major source of honey and bee wax. Aegiceras corniculatum, Ceriops decandra, Nipa species, Derris species, and Hibiscus tiliaceous are the major honey plants.

Tridal forest, Sundarbans

Most frequently visited sites in the Sundarbans include Katka, Hiron Point (known commonly as Nilkamal), Dublar Char and Tiger Point (Kachi Khali). Katka attracts tourists for its landscape and wildlife. There is a forest rest house here and an observation tower. Hiron Point also has a rest house and an observation tower. Dublar Char is an island with a beautiful beach. The other attraction of the island is the fishing activities that take place every year between mid-October and mid-February. Fishermen from other places of the country, especially from Chittagong, assemble here during the period to catch fish and dry them on the sunny beach. The honey collectors go into the forests during April-May.

Only a few people live permanently in or around the Sundarbans. They include the bawalis (collectors of golpata), mouals (honey collectors) and woodcutters. Their dwellings are usually at the edge of the forest and the houses are built on platforms supported on 3-5 m high poles of wood or bamboo. Some people, especially the bedyas (gypsy) live on boats. [Mostafa Kamal Pasha and Neaz Ahmad Siddiqui]

Sundarbans forest regeneration Natural regeneration refers to renewal of a tree crop by natural means, as opposed to artificial regeneration by means of planting or sowing as done in mangrove plantation. The mangrove of the Sundarbans is dependent on natural regeneration for its existence. Over the greater part of the forest, seedling recruitment was sufficient for replacement of the harvested trees. The average number of seedlings appearing per year was about 27,750/ha although recruitment densities varied considerably among different parts of the forests. Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha and other species together constituted about 24, 54 and 22 percent of the recruits (three months old seedlings), respectively.

Salinity of the area apparently influences the regeneration density which decreases with increasing level of salinity. There is year to year variation in recruitment. However, salinity appears to have little influence on these variations. Variation in seedling recruitment among the three salinity zones seems to be significant. Seedling recruitment for H. fomes, E. agallocha, and other species shows highly fluctuating values over the years. Such fluctuation might be due to the existence of periodicity in the seed production of some species. 

Travela Baitul Mukarram Mosque in Bangladesh

Baitul Mukarram Mosque  is the National Mosque of Bangladesh. Its construction began on 27 January 1960, and has been going on in phases. In the late 1950s Dhaka grew very rapidly. Abdul Latif Ibrahim Bawani first came up with the idea of building a grand mosque with a large capacity. The 'Baitul Mukarram Mosque Society' was formed in 1959 to facilitate the project. Land was allocated for the mosque complex at the meeting point of Old and New Dhaka. The site was also in close proximity to the central business district of the city. Architect T Abdul Hussain Thariani was commissioned to design the mosque complex. The plan included shops, offices, libraries and parking areas within the complex. Architectural Plan: Baitul Mukarram Mosque The design of the mosque reflects the architecture of the period as can be seen from the use of a white and almost cube-form for the main building. A Mosque without a dome over the roof of its main prayer hall must have been a unique experiment. The main building is eight storied and 99 feet high from the ground level. According to the original plan, the main entrance of the mosque was to be on the eastern side. The shahan on the east is 29,000 square feet with ablution space on its south and north sides. The absence of a dome on the main building is compensated by the two shallow domed entrance porticoes, one on the south, and the other on the north. The elevation of these porticoes consists of three horseshoe shaped arches, the middle of which is bigger than the rest. Two patios ensure that enough light and air enter the prayer hall. The area of the main prayer hall is 26,517 square feet with a mezzanine floor of 1,840 square feet at the eastern side. The hall is surrounded by verandas on three of its sides. The mihrab of the hall is rectangular instead of semi-circular. Baitul Mukarram Mosque, Dhaka Excessive ornamentation is avoided throughout the mosque, since minimizing ornamentation is typical of modern architecture. According to Thariani's original plan, the minar was a detached structure on the south side of the main building. However, two new minars are now under construction according to a new plan. The Baitul Mokarram mosque is modern in its architectural style. But it has not discarded traditional principles of mosque architecture. It has found its place in the hearts of the Muslims because of the resemblance of its form to the famous Kaba at Mecca. [Md Shahidul Amin]

Rickshaw Travels in Bangladesh

Rickshaw one of the principal means of transport in the urban areas of Bangladesh. With the improvement of road communication throughout the country, rickshaw has now found its way into rural areas as well. As a mode of transport rickshaw was first introduced in Japan in the early twentieth century. This mode of transport became particularly popular there due to the Second World War situation, which made petrol and motorised transport scarce and expensive. Japan, however, had soon replaced rickshaw, nintaku in Japanese, with motorised vehicles and by the 1950s the cycle rickshaw had disappeared from Japan. In the 1930 and early '40s rickshaw became popular in Indonesia, Singapore and other Southeast Asian countries. Rickshaw is said to have reached Chittagong from Myanmar in 1919. Interestingly, rickshaw did not spread out to Dhaka and other cities of Bangladesh from Chittagong. Rickshaws in Dhaka City Dhaka got rickshaw from Calcutta, where it was first introduced around 1930. European jute exporters living in Narayanganj and Netrokona (in Mymensingh) had first imported cycle rickshaw from Calcutta in 1938 for their personal use. The new vehicle roused great curiosity among the people of Dhaka, who were traditionally used to horse carriages, palanquins and city-canal boats. Initially cycle rickshaw did not receive enthusiastic response from users. The Dhaka city had only 37 rickshaws in 1941 and 181 rickshaws in 1947. Before 1947, Dhaka was a district town, which had a population of 62,469 only according to 1951 census. But in 1998, the city's population grew over 8 million and the number of registered rickshaws in the city was 112,572. The number of rickshaws in all other cities of Bangladesh in that year was 274,265 and in all villages 91,040. Rickshaw and rickshaw vans (also a tricycle vehicle similar to rickshaw but with the difference that instead of passenger seats, these have a flat bed of wooden bars resting on the axle over the rear pair of wheels and they carry goods in small lots) are now fast replacing the traditional transports like horse carriages and bullock carts in the country. It is a popular guess that the total number of rickshaws in the city is at least two and a half times that of the registered ones and accordingly, the city had at least 280,000 rickshaws in 2000. Estimates based on the figures that each rickshaw is operated by two pullers in morning and evening shifts and the average number of family members of a rickshaw puller is five, suggest that the rickshaws of Dhaka city alone is a source of income for nearly three million people. Unlike in all Southeast Asian countries, rickshaws in Bangladesh have a lasting foothold. It has established itself with a dominance unmatched by other modes of transport. The predominance of rickshaw as a transport is evidenced by the fact that the percentage-wise traffic composition in Dhaka, Sylhet, Comilla and Rangpur cities are 49%, 78%, 80% and 55% respectively. Other means of transport in Dhaka are, in order of traffic, the (a) cars, jeeps, pick-ups etc. (b) baby taxi, (c) bus, (d) truck, (e) tempo and (f) bicycle. Bicycle, however, is the second in the list of predominant vehicles in cities outside Dhaka. Fifty percent of the value added in transport sector is being contributed by rickshaws and the mode of transport provides employment and living to people engaged not only as the pullers directly but also as its manufacturers of its mainframe, the body with seat and hoods and its spare parts. A great number of people depends for the living on the decoration of rickshaw body, artwork on it and rickshaw garages. [Sirajul Islam] Rickshaw Art decorative art of rickshaws, which may be extended to cover all rickshaw decoration, from painted backboards and rear side panels to cut-outs appliquéd on to hoods and brass vases replete with plastic or paper flowers. In a restrictive sense it is generally applied to the painted backboard, a tin plate fixed to the lower rear of a rickshaw hiding the chain. In this sense it is also extended to include the paintings on the rear of autorickshaws or baby taxis. Rickshaw art has been compared to traffic art in other parts of the world, such as the decorated trucks of Pakistan. Rickshaw art is mainly an urban phenomenon and perhaps dates back to the 1950's. It shares some similarity of theme and execution with movie billboards, which may be ascribed to the fact that many rickshaw painters had either themselves painted movie billboards or had apprenticed with such painters. The art of the rickshaw painter is passed on from ustad, master, to apprentice. There is a lot of repetition, either because of the popularity of some motifs or because of the influence of the master craftsman. The paintings are executed quickly, with readymade enamel paints, which do not allow paints to be mixed. Bright primary colours are popular and the painting is flat, lacking shadows, perspective, and scale. Rickshaw art There are variations in rickshaw art in different towns of Bangladesh. For example, nearly eighty per cent of rickshaws in Dhaka city are decorated and most of them have animal scenes, natural scenes, and pictures of movie themes. Chittagong and Comilla areas show less enthusiasm about decorating rickshaws and the rickshaw art there contain fewer human images and have more images of flowers, birds, animals etc. Rickshaws in Sylhet, considered to be a more pious area, are rarely decorated. Among popular themes are the Taj Mahal, movie scenes and portraits of movie stars, idyllic scenes of rural Bengal with plump hens, placid cows, coconut palms, neat huts, gentle streams. Islamic scenes such as mosques and Borak, the winged horse, are also frequently found. Because rickshaw backboards have to be painted annually, rickshaw artists often depict topical themes. In the early seventies, scenes of fighting between muktijoddha (freedom fighters) and Pakistani soldiers were common. Increasingly common, especially on autorickshaws are scenes of futuristic cities, planes and other fast-moving forms of transport. Rickshaw artists do not always sign their pictures. Sometimes the name of the rickshaw garage owner or rickshaw maker or mistri is noted on the plate. Sometimes artists paint under pseudonyms. Occasionally, a number of artists share the same name, and, at other times, a plate executed by an apprentice, is signed with the name of the master. It is probable that, with the increasing recognition being given to this form of folk art (a collection of rickshaw paintings has been given to the bangladesh national museum and a non-government organisation is popularising rickshaw art) more and more artists will sign their names. [Niaz Zaman]

Travels Mahasthan in Bangladesh

Mahasthan or Mahasthangarh  represents the earliest and the largest archaeological site in Bangladesh, consists of the ruins of the ancient city of pundranagara. The site is 13 km north of Bogra town on the Dhaka-Dinajpur highway. The ruins form an oblong plateau measuring 1500m N-S and 1400m E-W and are enclosed on their four sides by rampart walls that rise to an average height of 6m from river level. The highest point within the enclosure at the southeast corner is occupied by the mazar (tomb) of shah sultan mahisawar and by a mosque of the Mughal Emperor farrukh siyar. The latter has been enclosed by a modern mosque, which has been extended recently, a development that precludes the scope of excavation here in future. The northern, western and southern sides of the fortified city were encircled by a deep moat, traces of which are visible in the former two sides and partly in the latter side. The river Karatoya (Karatoya) flows on the eastern side. The moat and the river might have served as a second line of defence of the fort city. Many isolated mounds occur at various places outside the city within a radius of 8 km on the north, south and west, testifying to the existence of suburbs of the ancient provincial capital.

Many travellers and scholars, notably buchanan, O'Donnell, Westmacott, beveridge and Sir Alexander cunningham visited this site and mentioned it in their reports. But it was Cuningham who identified these ruins as the ancient city of Pundranagara in 1879.
	An aerial view of Mahasthan site, Bogra

The city was probably founded by the Mauryas, as testified by a fragmentary stone inscription in the Brahmi script (mahasthan brahmi inscription) mentioning Pudanagala (Pundranagara). It was continuously inhabited for a long span of time.
	Eastern gateway of Mahasthan

The first regular excavation was conducted at the site in 1928-29 by the Archaeological Survey of India under the guidance of KN Diksit, and was confined to three mounds locally known as bairagir bhita, govinda bhita and a portion of the eastern rampart, together with the bastion known as munir ghun. Work was then suspended for three decades. It was resumed in the early sixties when the northern rampart area, parasuram palace (Parashuramer Prasad), mazar area, khodar pathar bhita, mankalir kunda mound and other places were excavated. The preliminary report of these excavations was published in 1975. After about two decades excavation was once more resumed in 1988. It then continued for almost every year up to 1991. During this period the work was confined to areas near the mazar and the northern and eastern rampart walls. But the work done in this phase was of negligible scope compared to the vastness of the site. The history and cultural sequence of the site were yet to be established. The necessity of a thorough investigation for the reconstruction of the early history of the site and the region, and for the understanding of the organisation of the ancient city continued to be felt.

Consequently, under an agreement between the governments of Bangladesh and France (1992) a joint venture by Bangladeshi and French archaeologists was undertaken in early 1993. Since then archaeological investigation is being carried out every year in an area close to the middle of the eastern rampart. Excavations have also been conducted earlier by the Department of Archaeology, Bangladesh, in a number of sites outside the fortified city such as bhasu vihar (Bhasu Vihara), bihar dhap, mangalkot and Godaibadi.

Excavation at the city has reached virgin soil at several points. Of these, the recent excavations conducted by the France-Bangladesh mission have revealed 18 building levels. The works carried out at different times from 1929 to the present (including France-Bangladesh expeditions) reveal the following cultural sequence:

Period I represents the pre-Mauryan cultural phase characterised by large quantity of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) of phase B, Rouletted ware, Black and Red Ware (BRW), black slipped ware, grey ware, stool querns, mud-built houses (kitchen) with mud floors, hearths and post-holes. Fine NBPW are more numerous in the lowermost levels; dishes, cups, beakers and bowls are the predominant types. Only a brick-paved floor has been traced in a very restricted area of this level, but no wall associated with this floor has been exposed till now. It appears that the earliest settlement took place over the Pliestocene formation. No precise date for this early settlement could be ascertained. But some radiocarbon dates from the upper level go back to late 4th century BC. This indicates that the 'early settlement' is of pre-Mauryan period. It needs to be ascertained whether this phase belongs to Nanda or pre/proto-historic culture.

Glazed pottery	Black polished ceramics

Period II is represented by the occurrence of broken tiles (the earliest evidence so far known of this type of roofing), brick-bats used as temper or binding material in the construction of mud walls (also sometimes reused in a domestic context ie, fire place, terracotta ring well),

NBPW, common wares of pale red or buff colour, ring stone, bronze mirror, bronze lamp, copper cast coins, terracotta plaques, terracotta animal figurines, semi-precious stone beads, stone mullers and querns. A few calibrated radiocarbon dates (366-162 BC, 371-173 BC) and the cultural materials indicate that this phase represents the Mauryan period.
	NBPW pieces

Period III represents the post-Mauryan (Shunga-Kusana) phase. It is marked by substantial architectural remains of large sized and better-preserved brick built houses, brick-paved floors, post-holes, terracotta ring wells, large quantity of terracotta plaques of Shunga affiliation, beads of semi-precious stones (agate, carnelion, quartz), silver punch marked coins, silver bangle, copper cast coins, antimony rods, terracotta pinnacle, large quantity of common pale red or buff wares (especially dishes, cups and bowls) and grey wares. NBPW of course fabric occurs in less frequency compared to Mauryan level. A few radiocarbon dates give calibrated intervals 197-46 BC, 60 BC-172 AD, 40 BC-122 AD.

Surya

Period IV represents the Kusana-Gupta phase. It is marked by the discovery of substantial amount of Kusana pottery and terracotta figurines with definite stylistic affiliation of the contemporary idiom. The principal pottery types are handled cooking vessels with incised designs, saucers, bowls, sprinklers and lids. Architectural remains are scanty compared to its lower and upper phases. Building materials are represented by small fragments of bricks. Other cultural materials are terracotta beads, bowls, stone and glass beads, glass bangles, terracotta seals and sealings.

Horse riding terracotta figurine

Period V represents the Gupta and late-Gupta phase. Radiocarbon data of this phase give calibrated dates between 361 AD and 594 AD. The phase yielded remains of a massive brick structure of a temple called Govinda Bhita, located close to the fort-city, belonging to the late Gupta period, as well as other brick structures - houses, floors, streets - in the city, and huge antiquities, including terracotta plaques of the characteristic style, seals, sealings, beads of terracotta, glass and semi-precious stones, terracotta balls, discs, copper and iron objects, and stamped wares.

Gold coins

Period VI represents the Pala phase, evidenced by architectural remains of several sites scattered throughout the eastern side of the city, like Khodar Pathar Bhita, Mankalir Kunda, Parasuram's Palace and Bairagir Bhita. This was the most flourishing phase and during this period a large number of Buddhist establishments were erected outside the city.

Period VII represents the Muslim phase testified by the architectural remains of a 15 domed mosque superimposed over the earlier period remains at Mankalir Kunda, a single domed mosque built by Farrukh Siyar, and other antiquities like Chinese celadon and glazed ware typical of the age. Bairagir Bhita, Khodar Pathar Bhita, Mankalir Kunda Mound, Parasuram's Palace Mound and Jiat Kunda are some sites inside the city which have yielded archaeological objects of interest. In addition to these sites, excavations in 1988-91 have revealed three gateways of the city, a considerable portion of the northern and eastern rampart, and a temple complex near the mazar area.

Silver punchmarked coins
Revers	Obverse	Beads (semi precious stone)

Out of the three gateways, two are in the northern rampart; one is 5m wide and 5.8m long and is located 442m eastward from the northwest corner of the fort, and the other, situated 6.5m eastward, is 1.6m wide. The gateways were in use in two phases related to the early and later Pala periods. The only gateway in the eastern rampart, located almost in its middle and 100m east of Parasuram's Palace, is about 5m wide and is thought to have been built in the late Pala period over the remains of an earlier gateway, which has not yet been fully exposed. All the gateway complexes are provided with guardrooms in the inner side, and bastions projecting outside the rampart walls.

Beads (stone)

Beads (glass)

The temple complex exposed in the mazar area does not reveal a coherent plan. It appears to have been built and rebuilt in five phases, one superimposed over the other, covering the Pala period. The antiquities recovered from the site include a few large size terracotta plaques, toys, balls, ornamental bricks, and earthenwares.

The rampart of the city, built with burnt bricks, belongs to six building periods. The earliest one belonged to the Maurya period, whereas the subsequent ones correspond to Shunga-Kusana, Gupta, early Pala, late Pala, and Sultanate periods. These walls were successively built one above the other.
	Jahajghata (wharf)

Thus we get a succession of rampart walls as we see the succession of cultural remains inside the city. However, the correlation between the cultural remains of the city of the earliest level and the earliest rampart wall (mud wall?) remains to be established.

Govinda Bhita, laksindarer medh, Bhasu Vihar, Vihar Dhap, Mangalkot and Godaibadi Dhap are excavated sites located outside the city but within its vicinity. Many more mounds lie scattered in adjacent villages, which are believed to contain cultural remains of the suburbs of the ancient fortified city of Pundranagar. [Shafiqul Alam